Importance of Accountants in Organisatioal performance

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Introduction

According to Meyer (2009), an accountant is a practitioner of accounting or accountancy, which is the measurement, disclosure or provision of assurance about financial information that helps managers, investors, tax authorities and others make decisions about allocating resources.  Accountants can either be employed with an accounting firm, a large company with an internal accounting department, or can set up an individual practice.

Accountants must abide by the ethical standards and guiding principles of the region where they practice such as IFRS or GAAP. The most common accounting designations are CA, CMA and CGA. The type of educational background and designation that an individual has will determine their professional duties. In many jurisdictions, professional accounting bodies maintain standards of practice and evaluations for professionals. Accountants who have demonstrated competency through their professional associations' certification exams are certified to use titles such as Chartered Accountant, Chartered Certified Accountant or Certified Public Accountant. Such professionals are granted certain responsibilities by statute, such as the ability to certify an organization's financial statements, and may be held liable for professional misconduct. Non-qualified accountants may be employed by a qualified accountant, or may work independently without statutory privileges and obligations.

Accountants play a vital role in an organisation. This is because he/she is at the epicentre of financial management of an organisation. A competent professional accountant in business is an invaluable asset to the company. These individuals employ an inquiring mind to their work founded on the basis of their knowledge of the company’s financials. Using their skills and intimate understanding of the company and the environment in which it operates, professional accountants in business ask challenging questions. Their training in accounting enables them to adopt a pragmatic and objective approach to solving issues. This is a valuable asset to management, particularly in small and medium enterprises where the professional accountants are often the only professionally qualified members of staff.

Accountancy professionals in business assist with corporate strategy, provide advice and help businesses to reduce costs, improve their top line and mitigate risks. As board directors, professional accountants in business represent the interest of the owners of the company (i.e., shareholders in a public company). Their roles ordinarily include: governing the organization (such as, approving annual budgets and accounting to the stakeholders for the company’s performance); appointing the chief executive; and determining management’s compensation. As chief financial officers, professional accountants have oversight over all matters relating to the company’s financial health. This includes creating and driving the strategic direction of the business to analyzing, creating and communicating financial information. As internal auditors, professional accountants provide independent assurance to management that the organization’s risk management, governance and internal control processes are operating effectively. They also offer advice on areas for enhancements. In the public sector, professional accountants in government shape fiscal policies that had far-reaching impacts on the lives of many. Accountants in academia are tasked with the important role of imparting the knowledge, skills and ethical underpinnings of the profession to the next generation.

The manager in an organisation

A manager is somebody who is responsible for directing and controlling the work and staff of a business, or of a department within it. In the business encyclopaedia, manager is on described as a person, who fulfills the primordial managerial functions (planning, organizing, motivating and controlling) and is the superior of given human team (Encyklopedia biznesc 1995). Whereas Griffin (2000) defines manager as a person who first of all is responsible for realization of management process. In particular manager is the person that makes plans and decisions, organizes, supervises and controls human, finance and information resources (Griffin 2000). A. Pocztowski also holds the view that manager is the profession which essence is the management – the art of reaching goals by proper using the finance, material and human resources (Pocztowski 1997).

Penc (200) equally conceives the manager, as a person employed for managing, fulfilling all his functions and making use of all or some part of organization’s resources in order to achieve goals of the whole organization or its given part. Author points also out that manager is the person employed in the administration position, whohas comprehensive knowledge necessary to leading people and managing the organization, in order to achieve optimal realization of their tasks in the confined conditions. Penc (2003) is also the specialist, who is able to find the solution in complicated conjuncture, who is not afraid to take a risk, who can draw the visions of the future, formulate the strategy of welcome changes and knows how to use the resources for optimal realization of his visions (Penc 2003).

Herby presented ways of defining “manager” term encourage to relate it to the term “supervisor”. Supervisor – by P.F. Drucker – is each white-collar, who in view of his position or knowledge is responsible for work contribution, which physically influence organization achievement’s capability. Most of managers are also supervisors, but not all of them, because there are many managers, who – in spite of being superiors to other employees do not – have in any way impact on organizations achievements capability (e.g. overseers in factories) (Drucker 1994). Another definition for supervisor holds the view that supervisor is the person, who is placed in formal organization and has subordinates. So, it is the person who the head of the given department and causes – using employees – realization of commissioned to this division tasks (Listwan 1993). Author does not mention in his definition that supervisor has to have impact on organization achievements capability and therefore he does not distinguish between supervisor and manager terms. In the next part of this article the terms “manager” and “supervisor” will be also used exchangeable.

Managing personnel could be divided in to many groups, it depends on the undertaken criterion. The most often referred criterion is the position of manager in the organization’s structure (hierarchy) (Penc 2000). From this point of view one can distinguish: a) top-management – including managers occupying the highest posts in company’s central administration or in branch establishments; they are responsible for planning and strategic decisions;

·       Planning: This step involves mapping out exactly how to achieve a particular goal. Say, for example, that the organization's goal is to improve company sales. The manager first needs to decide which steps are necessary to accomplish that goal. These steps may include increasing advertising, inventory, and sales staff. These necessary steps are developed into a plan. When the plan is in place, the manager can follow it to accomplish the goal of improving company sales.

·       Organizing: After a plan is in place, a manager needs to organize her team and materials according to her plan. Assigning work and granting authority are two important elements of organizing.

·       Staffing: After a manager discerns his area's needs, he may decide to beef up his staffing by recruiting, selecting, training, and developing employees. A manager in a large organization often works with the company's human resources department to accomplish this goal.

·       Leading: A manager needs to do more than just plan, organize, and staff her team to achieve a goal. She must also lead. Leading involves motivating, communicating, guiding, and encouraging. It requires the manager to coach, assist, and problem solve with employees.

·       Controlling: After the other elements are in place, a manager's job is not finished. He needs to continuously check results against goals and take any corrective actions necessary to make sure that his area's plans remain on track.

All managers at all levels of every organization perform these functions, but the amount of time a manager spends on each one depends on both the level of management and the specific organization.

Roles performed by managers

A manager wears many hats. Not only is a manager a team leader, but he or she is also a planner, organizer, cheerleader, coach, problem solver, and decision maker — all rolled into one. And these are just a few of a manager's roles.

In addition, managers' schedules are usually jam‐packed. Whether they're busy with employee meetings, unexpected problems, or strategy sessions, managers often find little spare time on their calendars. (And that doesn't even include responding to e‐mail!)

In his classic book, The Nature of Managerial Work, Henry Mintzberg describes a set of ten roles that a manager fills. These roles fall into three categories:

·         Interpersonal: This role involves human interaction.

·         Informational: This role involves the sharing and analyzing of information.

·         Decisional: This role involves decision making.

Functions of an accountant

An accountant performs financial functions related to the collection, accuracy, recording, analysis and presentation of a business, organization or company's financial operations. The accountant usually has a variety of administrative roles within a company's operations. In a smaller business, an accountant's role may consist of primarily financial data collection, entry and report generation. Middle to larger sized companies may utilize an accountant as an adviser and financial interpreter, who may present the company's financial data to people within and outside of the business. Generally, the accountant can also deal with third parties, such as vendors, customers and financial institutions.

Financial Data Management: The accounting structure of a company is an essential component to business operations. One of the primary roles of an accountant usually involves the collection and maintenance of financial data, as it relates to a company or firm. The accountant ensures that financial records are maintained in compliance with lawful and accepted procedures and policies on the corporate level. The financial information for any organization should be kept in a pristine system because it is a key component used in operating and managing any business. Managing the financial data of an organization can also include more sophisticated duties, such as developing, implementing and maintaining financial data bases, as well as establishing and monitoring control procedures.

Analysis and Advice: As analysts, accountants may perform certain types of analysis using financial data that is used to assist in making business decisions. From deciding which kinds of supplies to order, payment of bills to payroll, the accountant handles many intricate financial details on a daily basis. Advising on business operations can include issues, such as revenue and expenditure trends, financial commitments and future revenue expectations. The accountant also analyzes financial data to resolve certain discrepancies and irregularities that may arise. Recommendations may also involve developing efficient resources and procedures, while providing strategic recommendations for specific financial problems or situations.

Financial Report Preparation: Accountants typically prepare financial statements that may include monthly and annual accounts based upon the financial information that is compiled and analyzed. The preparation of financial management reports can include accurate quarterly and year-end closing documents. Reports compiled may be used in connection with the continual support and management of budgetary forecast activities. The financial reports may be used by a financial director or officer for the development, implementation and operation of a company's financial software and systems, such as Hyperion, Excel and CODA Financial Management.

Compliance: An accountant may also be responsible for ensuring that all financial reporting deadlines are met, internally and externally. For example, quarterly, semi-annual and annual reports all have specific deadlines, as well as some tax implications. Monitoring and supporting taxation issues and filings can also be a responsibility of an accountant. The accountant also usually coordinates the audit process by assisting with financial data preparation.

External Business Affiliations: Often, accountants must work with financial professionals from the four major fields of the industry: public, management, internal auditing and government accounting. Accountants may provide data to a public accountant, who acts as a consultant, auditor and tax service professional. Corporations, nonprofits, organizations and governments use management accountants to record and analyze financial information of the businesses in which they are employed. They usually advise company executives, creditors, stockholders, regulatory agencies and tax personnel. Accountants may also work with government officials who are examining and maintaining the financial records of the private business for whom an accountant is employed, in connection with taxation and government regulations.

Reasons why an accountant should present annual financial statement.

·     Professionalism: since it is the function of an accountant to present or document financial statement, he should not be responsible for annual financial presentation

·     Ethics: An accountant knows the dos and don’ts of financial presentation. Therefore he/she knows ways of protecting the company’s financial integrity.

·     Clarity: An accountant will present financial statement of a company with every amount of clarity.

·     Accuracy: Since an accountant is a professional, he/she is an expert and therefore should be responsible for financial statement presentation.  

Conclusion

          Annually, one sees the managers presenting financial statement of an organisation which they did not prepare. Due to some lack of most professionalism in accounting presentation most of the managers do not know the ethics of accounting professionalism. Based on this, their financial statement are seen to be faulty. 

References

Drucker P.F. (1994): Menedżer skuteczny. Nowoczesność, Warszawa: 17-22.

Duda-Nowak R. (1998): Siła przywódcy. Personel 9, 54: 59-61.

Encyklopedia biznesu. (1995). Ed. W. Pomykało. Cz. 1. Fundacja Innowacja, Warszawa.

Griffin R.W. (2000): Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami. Wyd. Nauk. PWN, Warszawa.

Kozakiewicz K. (1996): Zmiana układu ról kierowniczych kierowniczych procesie transformacji. In: Praca kierownicza w przedsiębiorstwie w okresie transformacji gospodarki. Ed. K. Krzakiewicz. AE, Poznań.

Listwan T. (1993): Kształtowanie kadry menedżerskiej firmy. Mimex, Wrocław: 15-19.

Mintzberg H. (1975): The Manager’s Job: Folklore and Fact. Harvard Business Review 53.

Mosley D.C., Megginson L.C., Petri P.H. (1985): Supervisory management: the art of working with and through people. OH : South-Western Publishing Co., Cincinnati: 18-19.

Nogalski B., Śniadecki J. (1998): Kształtowanie umiejętności menedżerskich. TONiK, Bydgoszcz.

Penc J. (2000): Menedżer w uczącej się organizacji. Menedżer, Łódź: 107-108.

Penc J. (2003): Menedżer w działaniu. Wyd. C.H. Beck, Warszawa.

Pocztowski A. (1997): Wynagradzanie menedżerów. In: Jak skutecznie wynagradzać pracowników. Ed. K. Sedlak. Wyd. Profesjonalnej Szkoły Biznesu, Kraków.

Pocztowski A. (1998): Sylwetka menedżera personalnego wobec nowych wyzwań. In: Menedżer u progu XXI wieku. Ed. S. Bohdziewicz. Wyd. Wyższej Szkoły Humanistyczno-Ekonomicznej, Łódź.

Performance evaluation of cucumber and maize using organic (cow dung) and inorganic manure (NPK 15 15 15).

This is a complete project material on Practical  Agriculture....

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Maize (Zea mays L) and Cucumber (Cucumis sativum L.) are two important food crops in Nigeria as well as in other parts of the world. Over the years maize has been useful as a food, construction material and medicinal or decorative plant. With the industrial development, it increasingly became an industrial raw material for the production of starch, gluten, oil, flour, alcohol and lignocelluloses for further processing into a whole range of products and by products. On the other hand, cucumber is a major fruit vegetable that is eaten raw (in salad) or cooked. It can also be put in vinegar; the crop serves as a major source of vitamins for people in developing countries. (Ayotamuno, 2000).

Maize (Zea mays) is a member of the grass family (gramincae). It originated from South and Central America The name maize is derived from the South American Indian Arawak-Carib word mahiz. It is also known as Indian corn or corn in America (Kochhar, 2006; Purseglove, 2002). Maize was introduced in West Africa by the Portuguese in the 10^th century, in Nigeria, it was probably in the 16th century by the Portuguese (Osagie and Eka, 2008). In Nigeria, maize is known and called by different vernacular names depending on locality like ‘agbado’, ‘igbado’ or ‘yangan’ (Yoruba); ‘masara’ or ‘dawar masara’ (Hausa); ‘ogbado’ akpakpa or ‘oka’ (Igbo); ‘apaapa’ (Ibira); ‘oka’ (Bini and Isha); ‘ibokpot’ or ‘ibokpot union’ (Efik) and ‘igumapa’ (Yala).

Maize is one of the important grains in Nigeria, not only on the basis of the number of farmers that engaged in its cultivation, but also in its economic value. Maize is a major important cereal crop being cultivated in the rainforest and the derived savannah zones of Nigeria. Maize has been in the diet of Nigerians for centuries. It started as a subsistence crop and has gradually become more important food crop. Maize has now risen to a commercial crop on which many agro-based industries depend on as raw materials (Iken and Amusa, 2004). Maize is highly yielding, easy to process, readily digested and cost less than other cereals in terms of production. It is also a versatile crop which is very popular the diet of Nigerians. It can be grown across a range of agro ecological zones (IITA, 2001). It is an important source of carbohydrate and if eaten in the immature state, provides useful quantities of Vitamin A and C

. Maize thrives best in a warm climate and is grown in most of the countries that have suitable climatic conditions. According to Amusa (2005), maize is a warm weather crop and is not grown in areas where the mean daily temperature is less than 19 ºC. Although the minimum temperature for germination is 10 ºC, germination will be faster and less variable at soil temperatures of 16 to 18 ºC. At 20 ºC, maize should emerge within five to six days. The critical temperature detrimentally affecting yield is approximately 32 ºC. Excessive dew can damage maize at all growth stages and a dew-free period of 120 to 140 days is required to prevent damage.

Maize is planted in the Forest zone for optimum yield. The optimum planting date is betwee March and 1 April, although planting could be done as soon as rainfall becomes steady. In the Derived Savannah zone, plant as soon as the rainfall becomes steady.  In the Southern eastern Nigerian zone, planting could still be done as late as May and June, depending on rainfall. Late season maize is recommended only for areas where rainfall is likely to be adequate. Seed rate for maize is 25 kg/ha for open pollinated varieties, 15 kg/ha for Hybrids. Approximately 10 to 16 kg of grain are produced for every millimetre of water used. At maturity, each plant will have used 250lt of water in the absence of moisture stress.

The most suitable soil for maize is one with a good effective depth, favourable morphological properties, good internal drainage, an optimal moisture regime, sufficient and balanced quantities of plant nutrients and chemical properties that are favourable specifically for maize production. Although large-scale maize production takes place on soils with a clay content of less than 10 % (sandy soils) or in excess of 30 % (clay and clay-loam soils), the texture classes between 10 and 30 % have air and moisture regimes that are optimal for healthy maize production. In the context of this work, the soil content is 12% of sandy soil and 35% (clay and clay-loam soils), the texture is between 15 and 35%. It has air and moisture regimes.

Several methods can be used to determine yield potential, each with its own limitations. One of the most reliable methods is long-term yield data collected by each individual producer, as this reflects inherent yield of the specific environment, as well as the effect of agronomic practices such as fertilisation, soil cultivation and plant population, managerial abilities of the producer.

On the other hand, cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, is native of Asia and Africa, where it has been consumed for 3,000 years. It is a popular fresh market vegetable in salads and also is processed into kim chee and oriental-type pickles in Hawaii. In Nigeria, over 60% of local production is in Jos, Plateau state, Kaduna and Zamfara. The crop is susceptible to serious losses from such pests as whitefly, the melon fly, leafminers, mosaic viruses, and to soil-borne and foliar diseases. Production volumes are 40-50% lower during the mid-rainy season when diseases are more prevalent. The pickling-type cucumbers, grown for processing in the continental U.S., are not grown to a large extent in Hawaii. In Nigeria, the popular specie produced include pickling-type, burpless-type and Slicing-type cucumbers are mainly produced.

Historically, cucumber is believed to be native to India, and evidence indicates that it has been cultivated in Western Asia for three millennia. The cucumber is also listed among the products of ancient Ur and the legend of Gilgamesh are described as people eating cucumbers (Juma, 2009). Some sources also state that it was produced in ancient Thrace (southeast Europe) and it is certainly part of modern cuisine in Bulgaria and Turkey, parts of which make up that ancient state. From India, the cucumber spread to Greece (where it was called “vilwos”) and Italy (where the Romans were especially fond of the crop), and later into China. The fruit is mentioned in the Bible (Numbers 11:5) as having been freely available in Egypt, even to the enslaved Israelites: We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely/the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlic. The Israelites later came to cultivate the cucumber themselves.

Cucumber was introduced in Nigeria during colonisation. It was probably introduced in Nigeria by the Portuguese. Since then, cucumber has being an important fruit vegetable with great economic potentials, as medicinal plant and source of industrial raw materials. Cucumber is a dependable laxative food for those who suffer constipation. The juice of cucumber is a valuable medicinal food in the treatment of hyperacidity gastric and duodenal ulcers (Ernestina, 2001).

Cucumber grow well in a sandy-loamy soil. Cucumber require a warm climate. In cool temperate countries, it is grown in greenhouses; only during early rainy season and late rainy season. The optimum temperature for growth is about 26⁰ - 30°C and the optimum night temperature 18–21°C; the minimum temperature for good development is 15°C. High light intensity is needed for optimum yields. Cucumber and maize need a fair amount of water but it cannot stand water logging. Low relative humidity results in high plant evaporation due to the large leaf area, and sufficient irrigation is then very important. High relative humidity facilitates the occurrence of downy mildew. In tropical Africa elevations up to 2000 m appear to be suitable for cucumber cultivation. In Nigeria, cucumbers are grown majorly in the North particularly Jos; due to the climatic requirements. However, according to the research conducted at the department of soil Science University of Nigeria (2011) shows that cucumber can grow anywhere giving the right production method and management of the environmental factor. Currently the crop is doing well at Technology and Vocational Education Agricultural demonstration farm in Ebonyi State University where the researcher is carrying out a performance evaluation of cucumber and maize production using organic and inorganic manure.

Cereal-legume cropping plays an important role in subsistence food production in both developed and developing countries, especially in situations of limited water resources. Cropping of either cereal crop alone or legume crops helps maintain and improve soil fertility and plays an important role in subsistence food production in developing countries because farmers cannot afford inorganic fertilizers. Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen, which may be utilized by the host plant or may be excreted from the nodules into the soil and be used by other plants growing nearby (Takim, 2012). Legumes can also transfer fixed Nitrogen (N) (Andrew, 2009).

An understanding of crop nutrient requirement and the use of best fertilizer are important keys to growing healthy and profitable cucumber and maize crops. Cucumbers do not perform well in acid soil but do well under soil that have slight acidity. The optimum pH is 5.5 – 7.0 (Uguru 2011). Valenzuela, Hanna, and Adams. (2005) recommended that if the soil pH is below 5.8, there is need for application of about 95kg/acre, of agricultural lime 8-12 weeks before planting.

Climatic problem is one of the major growing condition for optimum performance. Poor climate problem will result in less fruit being produced and bitter tasting cucumber (Huxdy, 2002). Although chemical fertilizer promotes healthy, robust plant growth and give high yield there is a point at which it become toxic and retard plant growth and fruit production. To prevent the toxicity of soil caused by fertilizers and to overcome droopy of the plant, a characteristic symptom of overuse of fertilizer, alternatives to the use of inorganic fertilizers should be developed, hence the evaluation of the use of animal dung and NPK 15 15 15 fertiliser in the current study by the researcher. This alternative should be environmentally friendly, readily available and cheap for a common farmer. It is against this background that the researcher that the researcher sought to ascertain performance evaluation of maize and cucumber using organic and inorganic manure

Statement of the Problem

Low soil fertility is one of the bottlenecks to sustainable agricultural production in Nigeria. Also, anthropogenic factors such as inappropriate land use systems, monocropping, nutrient mining and inadequate supply of nutrients have been factors responsible for low productivity of food crops in the country. Cucumber and maize are among the crops that suffer casualty of this problem. This has led to the scarcity of food and vegetable crops in the market especially cucumber and maize. 

As the application of manure seem to be the only remedy to this ugly trend, there is still controversy over the type of manure that could be used for optimum yield. There are two types of manure available to farmers. These include; organic and inorganic manure. Also, most of the farmers complain of lack of finance for buying inorganic fertiliser and as a result of that, most of them have refused to go into cucumber and maize production. It is therefore imperative to carry out a performance evaluation on cucumber and maize using organic and inorganic manure. This will help in determining the best manure to be used to improve the production of maize and cucumber in Nigeria and in Ebonyi state in particular since majority of the farmers are subsistent farmers